Above: The reddish brown shading marks the absolute distribution of Germans in the United States population based on the 1870 federal census. This map shows their number to the square mile, with the darker colors noting a higher density.

Above: The reddish brown shading marks the relative distribution of Germans in the United States population based on the 1870 federal census. This map shows their number according to their proportion to the aggregate population, with the darker colors noting a higher density.

Above: Red dots mark the residences of the seven known children of Pennsylvania German pioneers Jacob and Maria (Nein) Minerd Sr., and blue dots show where Jacob and Maria's 87 grandchildren lived as adults.